Life DBA, DBA's Life

Performance Tuning with Plumber

2009-08-15T21:33:00.001+10:00

1. Requirement of Performance Tuning

A few weeks before, the lady (let’s say Lady D) lives downstairs in our apartment building complained that, there was a deep water creep from the wall inside her unit, and the water stream was not running stably, our daily life and the adjacent sub modules are being affected extensively. As a result, we guessed it might be some bottlenecks or ‘memory leaks’ during the processes in which water runs inside the pipes. It must be tackled immediately as an emergent case.

2. Client

Lady D, My Landlord and me (As a coordinator).

3. Project Charter

Real Estate Agent, Body Corporate, Lady D and My Landlord.

4. Human Resource

Five people of AU team in total, they are Project Manager, Plumber, electrician, cementer01 and cementer02.

5. Scope of Work

Project Manager, responsible for project planning and scheduling, organizes the specialists of different aspects in implementing the project, bridges the communication gaps through Lady D, My Landlord and each project members.

Plumber, responsible for monitoring and fixing all the pipe modules in the unit, similar to debugging application sub modules, tracing and fixing application bugs.

Electrician, responsible for monitoring and debugging modules other than pipe, similar to tracing operating system and database system modules, pinpoint the bottleneck among operating system layer or database system layer or application layer.

Cementer01 and cementer02, responsible for fixing and consolidating the broken walls as well as ceramic tiles, ensure the project closes perfectly, similar to patching for the application or database system or operating system.

6. Implementation

1^st Day:

1） Project Manager, Lady D and Landlord attended the kick-off meeting, confirmed the project timetable and schedule

2^nd Day：

1） Plumber monitored and traced all the pipe modules inside the unit

2） Diagnosed the exception raised by the pipe module inside the wall of the bathroom

3） Further in-depth layers traced needed by electrician

3^rd Day：

1） Electrician asked me about the impacts of the surrounding modules caused by the questionable water module as well as additional information when invoking the water module

2） Electrician took in-depth tracing and analysis focusing on water module in the bathroom by an advanced monitoring and debugging tool

3） Eventually, the electrician found out the severe ‘memory leaks’ of the water module inside the wall of the bathroom without unclenching the ceramic tiles and breaking the wall

4） Electrician suggested to hang on the specific water module to prevent further ‘memory leaks’

4^th Day：

1） Plumber unclenched the ceramic tiles and the wall

2） Plumber took a double checking inside the water module and subsequently pinpoint the statement line that raised the leaking exactly

3） Plumber fixed the questionable water module

4） Reloaded the water module, water service was back on track

5^th Day ~ 20^th Day (a little bit uncomfortable about this)：

1） There was a risk on human resource of the project that the cementers could not be available as the fixed project schedule

2） Project hanged until the day that the cementers were available

21^stDay：

1） Cementer01 and Cementer02 back to the project

2） Cementer01 and Cementer02 fixed the broken wall and ceramic tiles caused by previous in-depth tracing and analysis through the water module

3） Cementer01 and Cementer02 consolidated the wall and ceramics followed by updated patching

4） Water module in the bathroom would back on track with normal service in couples of hours after the automatic patching

22^nd Day：

1） Each module ran normally with full services

2） Each module downstairs ran normally which indicates the performance tuning project successfully completed

7. Comparison with CN project

1） It takes more or less one working day to complete this kind of project by CN team

2） It takes 1 ~ 2 people as human resource in CN team, in most cases, the one who plays the role as project manager will also act as plumber, electrician and cementer simultaneously

8. Summary

1） AU team follows the project standard strictly which makes the project runs smoothly, it is more suitable for big project rather than small project

2） AU team has a higher cost on human resource which indicates a higher risk implicitly

3） AU team requires every specialist demonstrates an in-depth technical skill in his area in the project, whereas as a contract, the synthetic ability might not be required in the first place

4） CN team follows a agile project standard with compacted project schedule, it is more suitable for medium and small projects

5） CN team has a lower cost on human resource which reduces the risk of resource

6） CN team requires a higher synthetic ability in the project, lacks of top specialists in the specific field

7） It is the best bet to work on the project consisted by AU team and CN team: AU team responsible for project management, CN team members act as project members; AU team responsible for top specialists in each field while CN team responsible for the Chief Technical Officer

水管工的性能调优

2009-08-14T21:09:00.000+10:00

1. 性能调优需求

前段时间，我租住的公寓楼下的一位女士D反映说，她家的墙壁出现大面积渗水，水流速度不稳定，严重影响日常生活用水，以及水管的周边模块。我们猜测可能水在水管中运作过程出现性能瓶颈或者内存泄漏，事关紧急，需要尽快处理。

2. 客户

女士D、我的房东（我是接口人）

3. 性能调优项目立项

中介，物业管理，女士D和我的房东

4. 人力资源

共5人，他们分别是：项目经理，水管工，电气工，水泥工01，水泥工02

5. 任务说明书

项目经理，负责制定项目计划，组织各领域的专家执行项目，是女士D、我的房东和各项目成员之间的沟通桥梁

水管工，负责全屋水管模块检测与更换，相当于所有应用程序子模块调试、跟踪以及修复程序漏洞

电气工，负责水管以外的模块检测与调试，相当于操作系统和数据库模块的跟踪，并定位瓶颈是否位于操作系统层或者数据库系统层，或者应用程序层

水泥工01和水泥工02，负责修复和巩固墙壁、瓷砖等工作，使项目实施能够完美结束，相当于给应用程序、数据库系统或者操作系统打补丁

6. 项目实施过程

第一天：

1）项目经理和女士D、房东召开开工大会，确定项目时间以及日程表

第二天：

1）水管工对全屋水管模块进行检测与跟踪

2）初步诊断水管模块在浴室部分可能有异常

3）需要电工进行底层跟踪

第三天：

1）电气工向我询问了水管模块对周边模块的影响，以及我平常调用水管模块的详细信息

2）电气工采用先进检测调试工具，对浴室部分的水管模块重点进行底层跟踪和分析

3）最终，电气工隔着瓷砖和墙壁确定出浴室墙壁里面的水管模块有严重“内存”泄漏现象

4）电气工建议浴室的水管模块马上挂起，暂停使用，以免造成更多空闲“内存”泄漏

第四天：

1）水管工对瓷砖和墙壁进行拆卸

2）水管工直接对内部的水管模块进行再次诊断，并精准确定出泄漏的具体命令行

3）水管工对出问题的水管模块进行修复

4）重新加载水管模块，水管模块恢复对外提供服务

第五天 ~ 第二十天(这一点比较不习惯)：

1）项目人力资源出现风险，水泥工无法按预定计划参与项目

2）项目暂时搁置，等待水泥工的空闲资源

第二十一天：

1）水泥工01和水泥工02终于出现并重返项目组

2）水泥工01和水泥工02修复由于水管模块深度跟踪与诊断而被破坏的墙壁与瓷砖

3）水泥工01和水泥工02对墙壁和瓷砖进行巩固并打上最新补丁

4）由于补丁自动升级需要若干小时，浴室水管模块要若干小时候才能重新恢复服务

第二十二天：

1）全屋各个模块运作正常，所有业务对外提供完全服务

2）楼下房屋的各个模块运作恢复正常，整个系统调优项目正式结束

7. 与国内项目组对比

1）国内项目组一个工作日基本可以搞定

2）国内项目组所需人力资源一般1~2人，同一个人同时扮演水管工、电气工以及水泥工角色，甚至兼职项目经理

8. 小结

1）国外项目组项目流程规范，项目进行有条不紊，适合做大项目，不适合做小项目

2）国外项目组人力资源费用昂贵，人力风险高

3）国外项目组对每个方面的技术专家专业技能要求较高，但综合技能要求较低

4）国内项目组项目流程简洁，项目时间紧凑，适合做中、小项目

5）国内项目组人力资源费用较低，人力风险低

6）国内项目组对专家综合技能要求较高，每个方面的顶尖技术专家较缺乏

7）项目采用中西结合方式实施较佳，即项目管理由国外项目组承担，项目成员由国内项目组成员组成; 每个领域专家由国外项目组提供，但整个项目的首席专家由国内项目组提供

Porridge and User Requirement

2009-07-04T15:29:00.005+10:00

I have been learning healthy diet theory these days, accompanied with some practical experiments. Through the theoretical point of view, it is healthier to have porridge for dinner. This is mainly because individuals usually sleep at night instead of outdoor activities. Therefore, going on a light diet can reduce the burden of most human organs which subsequently makes your body healthier. Then I am falling in love with porridge and kimchi for my dinner day in day out.

Because I love it just like I love database technology, I always cook the porridge with my heart and soul. I have developed a considerable number of solutions to make the porridge become more and more delicious, like for instance, embedded with several red dates, plug in with fresh cabbage model and so on. As a result of my constantly hard work and all sorts of prototype tests, integrated with little salt and chicken powder turns out to be the perfect solution eventually, especially with delicate fragrance. I integrated the exact amount of resources at an accurate point in time successfully, provided my high quality product to my high quality client – my LD^① with my honor, looking forward to the appreciation from LD:)

After LD received my deliverable product, she just mixed it with rich-smelled kimchi, the pure light-fragrance porridge suddenly became into red spicy-sour porridge. One thing much worse is all my efforts were gone with wind.

Me: "This is the special porridge for special you, it is full with love, and the delicate fragrance is the soul of the porridge, but now its' gone."

LD: "What I need is a bowl of porridge which can make me full."

Me: "But what if the porridge with delicate fragrance? Isn't that better?"

LD: "Your porridge is used to adapt my kimchi, it doesn't matter whether it is delicious. Your responsibility is only to cook for porridge, thank you for your porridge."

What else can I say?

Do we have any similar experience like 'Porridge' and 'Kimchi' during the researching phase in a project? Although we work hard with excellent idea on the product, our client is still reckless with it? Although we have tried our best to serve our customers with high quality products, we have not realized that we had not understood our customers’ requirements until the day we deliver our product? However, client is our god, client is the reason we live.

Please do always remember that: There is no mistake of our client!

Anyway, I will have a further discuss with LD in advance before I cook next time, in order to eliminate unnecessary gas, power, water, rice, olive oil, salt, etc and human resource, additionally, the most significant thing is to keep our best image in the mind of our clients:)

Notes:

LD^①means LeaDer which also means wife.

粥与客户需求

2009-07-03T21:51:00.001+10:00

这段时间开始学习健康饮食理论基础，同时也进行了一些结合理论的实践。理论上说，晚餐吃粥比较好，因为普通人在夜间的活动比较少，主要以睡觉为主，所以吃清淡一点的食物能够有效减轻身体各器官在夜间的工作负担，对身体健康有好处。于是，开始迷恋上白粥与韩国泡菜的晚餐。

因为热爱这个事物，就跟热爱数据库技术一样，所以很用心去熬每一锅粥。为了能让我家LD吃上美味可口的白粥，俺可是费尽了心思，想了好多解决方案来使这锅粥变得更加香滑诱人，例如，往白粥里嵌入几颗补血的红枣，往白粥里添加新鲜的卷心白菜模块等等。经过不懈努力以及各种原型测试，最后，发现往白粥里面集成一些盐和鸡精会让白粥吃起来更加美味可口，粥里面散发出一缕幽幽的清香。于是，俺小心翼翼的掂量着调味剂的分量以及集成到白粥里面的时间点，并且很自豪地把爱心粥产品奉献给口味挑剔的LD大人品尝，并且等待着LD的赞赏:)

LD接过爱心粥产品，然后用筷子夹了一大块味道浓厚的韩国泡菜往爱心粥里面一放，整碗爱心白粥顿时变成一碗鲜红的泡菜酸辣粥，幽幽的清香完全无法抵挡泡菜的酸辣味，辛苦了白天研制出来的爱心粥就这样被糟蹋了。

我连忙跟LD讲解说：“这是我经过长时间特意为您研发出来的爱心粥，在你把泡菜集成进去前，它还飘着幽幽的清香，这可是整碗粥的灵魂啊！可是幽幽的清香现在已经不复存在了！”

LD毫不在意的说：“我需要的只是一碗普通的白粥，能吃饱就可以了。”

我解释说：“飘着幽幽的清香不是更好吗？”

LD答复：“你的粥只是用来适配我的泡菜，粥的味道是否美味并不重要。你把粥熬好就可以了，谢谢您的粥！”

我无言以对。

我们平时在做项目预研的时候是否也会有类似“粥”与“泡菜”的经历？虽然自己花费了很多心思在产品设计上面，但最终却被客户视而不见？虽然自己努力把产品和服务做好，但在交付的时候才发现原来自己没有真正把握客户的需求？无论如何，客户是我们的上帝，也是我们生存的理由，记住：客户永远是对的！

下次熬粥之前，记得问问LD想吃什么粥，免得浪费柴米油盐和人力成本，更重要的是避免影响自己在客户心目中的形象:)

Meaning of life

2009-06-16T15:38:00.001+10:00

Recently, I have been thinking about a question: What is the Meaning of Life? Everyone has his or her answer.

Sure, I have to tackle this problem myself by thinking personally. Then I walked through the park with sunshine, grass and singing birds, even meditated at night.

However, I am just human like everyone else on the street, for me, it is impossible to address this sophisticated problem by just thinking without plenty of sleeps. I work with lower efficiency today, finally it turns out that I realized I should find the answer via Google search engine on internet. I was surprised by the answer I found on internet, it is a formal answer, it is also a theoretical answer.

Therefore, I cited the following article from Wikipedia to everyone who needs it, hope it helps.

On the other hand, during the researching stage in a project, sometimes by rocking your mind, like for instance, brain storms, team reviews and conference calls, etc., if everyone could overcome hassle by his or her open attitude, just like simply doing some in-depth researches on IEEE/ACM/Oracle website, a considerable number of positive information would be found. This is much more meaningful for project planning, for in-depth technologies analysis and for individuals as well.

Cited From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the philosophical concept of the meaning of life. For other uses, see Meaning of life (disambiguation).

Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going?
One of Post-Impressionist Paul Gauguin's most famous paintings.

The meaning of life constitutes a philosophical question concerning the purpose and significanceof human existence. This concept can be expressed through a variety of related questions, such asWhy are we here?, What's life all about? and What is the meaning of it all? It has been the subject of much philosophical, scientific, and theological speculation throughout history. There have been a large number of answers to these questions from many different cultural and ideological backgrounds.Albert Camus observed, we humans are creatures who spend our lives trying to convince ourselves that our existence is not absurd. ^[1]

The meaning of life is deeply mixed with the philosophical and religious conceptions of existence,consciousness, and happiness, and touches on many other issues, such as symbolic meaning, ontology,value, purpose, ethics, good and evil, free will, conceptions of God, the existence of God, the souland the afterlife. Scientific contributions are more indirect; by describing the empirical factsabout the universe, science provides some context and sets parameters for conversations on related topics. An alternative, human-centric, and not a cosmic/religious approach is the question "What is the meaning of my life?" The value of the question pertaining to the purpose of life may be considered to be coincidal with the achievement of ultimate reality, if that is believed by one to exist.

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Meaning of life as a question

Philosopher in Meditation (detail) byRembrandt

Questions about the meaning of life have been expressed in a broad variety of ways, including the following:

What is the meaning of life? What's it all about? ^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6]^[7]^[8]

Why are we here? What are we here for? ^[8]^[9]^[10]^[11]^[12]^[13]

What is the origin of life? ^[14]^[15]

What is the nature of life? What is the nature of reality? ^[14]^[16]^[17]

What is the purpose of life? What is one's purpose in life? ^[5]^[8]^[16]^[18]^[19]

What is the significance of life? ^[19]

What is meaningful and valuable in life? ^[15]^[20]

What is the value of life? ^[15]^[21]

What is the reason to live? What are we living for? ^[13]^[15]^[22]

These questions have resulted in a wide range of competing answers and arguments, from scientific theories, to philosophical, theological, and spiritualexplanations...

Scientific inquiry and perspectives

DNA, the substance containing the genetic instructions for the development and functioning of all known living organisms.

Claims that descriptive science can shed light on normative issues such as the meaning of life are highly disputed within the scientific and philosophy-of-science communities. Nevertheless, science may be able to provide some context and sets some parameters for conversations on related topics.

Psychological significance and value in life

Science may or may not be able to tell us what is of essential value in life, but some studies bear on related questions: researchers in positive psychology (and, earlier and less rigorously, in humanistic psychology) study factors that lead to life satisfaction,^[23] full engagement in activities,^[24] making a fuller contribution by utilizing one's personal strengths,^[25] and meaning based on investing in something larger than the self.^[26]

One value system suggested by social psychologists, broadly called Terror Management Theory, states that all human meaning is derived out of a fundamental fear of death, whereby values are selected when they allow us to escape the mental reminder of death.

Neuroscience has produced theories of reward, pleasure and motivation in terms of physical entities such as neurotransmitter activity, especially in the limbic system and the ventral tegmental area in particular. If one believes that the meaning of life is to maximize pleasure, then these theories give normative predictions about how to act to achieve this.

Economists have learned a great deal about what is valued in the marketplace; and sociology examines value at a social level using theoretical constructs such as value theory, norms, anomie, etc.

Origin and nature of biological life

The exact mechanisms of abiogenesis are unknown: notable theories include the RNA world hypothesis (RNA-based replicators) and theiron-sulfur world theory (metabolism without genetics). The theory of evolution does not attempt to explain the origin of life but the process by which different lifeforms have developed throughout history via genetic mutation and natural selection.^[27] At the end of the 20th century, based upon insight gleaned from the gene-centered view of evolution, biologists George C. Williams,Richard Dawkins, David Haig, among others, conclude that if there is a primary function to life, it is the replication of DNA and the survival of one's genes.^[28]^[29]

However, though scientists have intensively studied life on Earth, defining life in unequivocal terms is still a challenge.^[30]^[31]Physically, one may say that life "feeds on negative entropy"^[32]^[33] which refers to the process by which living entities decrease their internal entropyat the expense of some form of energy taken in from the environment.^[34]^[35] Biologists generally agree that lifeforms are self-organizing systemsregulating the internal environment as to maintain this organized state, metabolism serves to provide energy, and reproduction allows life to continue over a span of multiple generations. Typically, organisms are responsive to stimuli and genetic information tends to change from generation to generation as to allow adaptation through evolution, these characteristics optimalizing the chances of survival for the individual organism and its descendants respectively.^[36]^[37] Non-cellular replicating agents, notably viruses, are generally not considered to be organisms because they are incapable of "independent" reproduction or metabolism. This controversy is problematic, though, since some parasites and endosymbionts are also incapable of independent life. Astrobiology studies the possibility of different forms of life on other worlds, such as replicating structures made from materials other than DNA.

The Big Bang and humanity's fate in this universe

The metric expansion of space. Theinflationary epoch is the expansion of themetric tensor at left. (WMAP image, 2006)

Though the Big Bang model was met with much skepticism when first introduced, partially because of a connection to the religious concept of creation, it has become well supported by several independent observations.^[38]However, current physics can only describe the early universe from 10^-43 seconds after the Big Bang (where zero time corresponds to infinite temperature), a theory of quantum gravity would be required to go further back in time. Nevertheless, many physicists have speculated about what would have preceded this limit, and how our universe came into being.^[39] Some physicists think that the Big Bang occurred coincidentally, and when considering the anthropic principle, it is most often interpreted as implying the existence of a multiverse.^[40]

However, no matter how the universe came into existence, humanity's fate in this universe appears to be doomed as —even if humanity would survive that long— biological life will eventually become unsustainable, be it through a Big Freeze, Big Rip or Big Crunch. It would seem that the only way to survive indefinitely would be by directing the flow of energy on a cosmic scale and altering the fate of the universe.^[39]

Scientific questions about the mind

The true nature and origin of consciousness and the mind itself are also widely debated in science. Theexplanatory gap is generally equated with the hard problem of consciousness, and the question of free will is also considered to be of fundamental importance. These subjects are mostly addressed in the fields of cognitive science, neuroscience and philosophy of mind, though some evolutionary biologists and theoretical physicists have also made several allusions to the subject.^[41]^[42]

Hieronymus Bosch's Ascent of the Blessed depicts a tunnel of light and spiritual figures, often described in reports of near-death experiences.

Reductionistic and eliminative materialistic approaches, for example the Multiple Drafts Model, hold that consciousness can be wholly explained by neuroscience through the workings of the brain and its neurons, thus adhering to biological naturalism.^[42]^[43]^[44]^[45]^[46]^[47]

On the other hand, some scientists, like Andrei Linde, have considered that consciousness, like spacetime, might have its own intrinsic degrees of freedom, and that our perceptions may be as real as (or even more real than) material objects.^[48] Hypotheses of consciousness and spacetime explain consciousness in describing a "space of conscious elements"^[48], often encompassing a number of extra dimensions.^[49] Electromagnetic theories of consciousness solve the binding problem of consciousness in saying that theelectromagnetic field generated by the brain is the actual carrier of conscious experience, there is however disagreement about the implementations of such a theory relating to other workings of the mind.^[50]^[51] Quantum mind theories use quantum theory in explaining certain properties of the mind. Explaining the process of free will through quantum phenomena is a popular alternative todeterminism, such postulations may variously relate free will to quantum fluctuations,^[52] quantum amplification,^[53] quantum potential^[52] and quantum probability.^[54]

Based on the premises of non-materialistic explanations of the mind, some have suggested the existence of a cosmic consciousness, asserting that consciousness is actually the "ground of all being".^[17]^[53]^[55] Proponents of this view cite accounts of paranormalphenomena, primarily extrasensory perceptions and psychic powers, as evidence for an incorporeal higher consciousness. In hopes of proving the existence of these phenomena, parapsychologists have orchestrated various experiments. Meta-analyses of these experiments indicate that the effect size (though very small) has been relatively consistent, resulting in an overall statistical significance.^[56]^[57]^[58] Although some critical analysts feel that parapsychological study is scientific, they are not satisfied with its experimental results.^[59]^[60] Skeptical reviewers contend that apparently successful results are more likely due to sloppy procedures, poorly trained researchers, or methodological flaws than to actual effects.^[61]^[62]^[63]^[64]

Philosophical perspectives

The philosophical perspectives on the meaning of life are those ideologies which explain life in terms of ideals or abstractions defined by humans.

Ancient Greek philosophy

Plato and Aristotle inThe School of Athensfresco, by Raphael.

Platonism

Main article: Platonism

Plato was the earliest, most influential Western philosopher to date — mostly for realism about the existence of universals. In the Theory of Forms, universals do not physically exist, like objects, but exist as ghostly, heavenly forms. In The Republic, the Socrates character's dialogue describes the Form of the Good. The Idea of the Good is ekgonos (offspring) of the Good, the ideal, perfect nature of goodness, hence an absolute measure of justice.

In Platonism, the meaning of life is in attaining the highest form of knowledge, which is the Idea (Form) of the Good, from which all good and just things derive utility and value. Human beings are duty-bound to pursue the good, but no one can succeed in that pursuit without philosophical reasoning, which allows for true knowledge.

Aristotelianism

Main article: Aristotelian ethics

Aristotle, an apprentice of Plato, was another, early, most influential Western philosopher, who argued that ethical knowledge is not certain knowledge (like metaphysics and epistemology), but is general knowledge. Because it is not a theoreticaldiscipline, a person had to study and practice in order to become 'good', thus if the person were to become virtuous, he could not simply study what virtue is, he had to be virtuous, via virtuous activities. To do this, Aristotle established what is virtuous: Every skill and every inquiry, and similarly, every action and choice of action, is thought to have some good as its object. This is why the good has rightly been defined as the object of all endeavor (NE 1.1) Everything is done with a goal, and that goal is 'good'.

Yet, if action A is done towards achieving goal B, then goal B also would have a goal, goal C, and goal C also would have a goal, and so would continue this pattern, until something stopped its infinite regression. Aristotle's solution is the Highest Good, which is desirable for its own sake, it is its own goal. The Highest Good is not desirable for the sake of achieving some other good, and all other ‘goods’ desirable for its sake. This involves achieving eudaemonia, usually translated as "happiness", "well-being", "flourishing", and "excellence".

What is the highest good in all matters of action? To the name, there is almost complete agreement; for uneducated and educated alike call it happiness, and make happiness identical with the good life and successful living. They disagree, however, about the meaning of happiness. (NE 1.4)

Cynicism

In the Hellenistic period, the Cynic philosophers said that the purpose of life is living a life of Virtue that agrees with Nature. Happiness depends upon being self-sufficient and master of one's mental attitude; suffering is consequence of false judgments of value, which cause negative emotions and a concomitant vicious character.

The Cynical life rejects conventional desires for wealth, power, health, and fame, by being free of the possessions acquired in pursuing the conventional.^[65]^[66] As reasoning creatures, people could achieve happiness via rigorous training, by living in a way natural to human beings. The worldequally belongs to everyone, so suffering is caused by false judgments of what is valuable and what is worthless per the customs and conventions ofsociety.

Cyrenaicism

Cyrenaicism, founded by Aristippus of Cyrene, was an early Socratic school that emphasised only one side of Socrates's teachings — that happiness is one of the ends of moral action and that pleasure is the supreme good; thus a hedonistic world view, wherein bodily gratification is more intense than mental pleasure. Cyrenaics prefer immediate gratification to the long-term gain of delayed gratification; denial is unpleasant unhappiness.^[67]^[68]

Epicureanism

Main article: Epicureanism

Bust of Epicurusleaning against his disciple Metrodorusin the Louvre Museum.

To Epicurus, the greatest good is in seeking modest pleasures, to attain tranquility and freedom from fear (ataraxia) via knowledge, friendship, and virtuous, temperate living; bodily pain (aponia) is absent through one's knowledge of the workings of the world and of the limits of one's desires. Combined, freedom from pain and freedom from fear are happiness in its highest form. Epicurus's lauded enjoyment of simple pleasures, is quasi-ascetic abstention from sex and the appetites:

When we say . . . that pleasure is the end and aim, we do not mean the pleasures of the prodigal or the pleasures of sensuality, as we are understood to do, by some, through ignorance, prejudice or wilful misrepresentation. By pleasure we mean the absence of pain in the body and of trouble in the soul. It is not by an unbroken succession of drinking bouts and of revelry, not by sexual lust, nor the enjoyment of fish, and other delicacies of a luxurious table, which produce a pleasant life; it is sober reasoning, searching out the grounds of every choice and avoidance, and banishing those beliefs through which the greatest tumults take possession of the soul.^[69]

The Epicurean meaning of life rejects immortality and mysticism; there is a soul, but it is as mortal as the body. There is noafterlife, yet, one need not fear death, because "Death is nothing to us; for that which is dissolved, is without sensation, and that which lacks sensation is nothing to us."^[70]

Stoicism

Stoicism teaches that living according to reason and virtue is to be in harmony with the universe's divine order, entailed by one's recognition of the universal logos (reason), an essential value of all people. The meaning of life is freedom from suffering through apatheia (Gr: απαθεια), that is, being objective, having "clear judgement", not indifference.

Stoicism's prime directives are virtue, reason, and natural law, abided to develop personal self-control and mental fortitude as means of overcoming destructive emotions. The Stoic does not seek to extinguish emotions, only to avoid emotional troubles, by developing clear judgement and inner calm through diligently practiced logic, reflection, and concentration.

The Stoic ethical foundation is that good lies in the state of the soul, itself, exemplified in wisdom and self-control, thus improving one's spiritual well-being: "Virtue consists in a will which is in agreement with Nature."^[70] The principle applies to one's personal relations thus: "to be free from anger, envy, and jealousy".^[70]

Enlightenment philosophy

Further information: Enlightenment philosophy

The Enlightenment and the colonial era both changed the nature of European philosophy and exported it worldwide. Devotion and subservience to God were largely replaced by notions of inalienable natural rights and the potentialities of reason, and universal ideals of love and compassion gave way to civic notions of freedom, equality, and citizenship. The meaning of life changed as well, focussing less on humankind's relationship to God and more on the relationship between individuals and their society. This era is filled with theories that equate meaningful existence with the social order.

Classical liberalism

Classical liberalism is a set of ideas that arose in the 17th and 18th centuries, out of conflicts between a growing, wealthy, propertied class and the established aristocratic and religious orders that dominated Europe. Liberalism cast humans as beings with inalienable natural rights (including the right to retain the wealth generated by one's own work), and sought out means to balance rights across society. Broadly speaking, it considers individual liberty to be the most important goal,^[71] because only through ensured liberty are the other inherent rights protected.

There are many forms and derivations of liberalism, but their central conceptions of the meaning of life trace back to three main ideas. Early thinkers such as John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Adam Smith saw humankind beginning in the state of nature, then finding meaning for existence through labour and property, and using social contracts to create an environment that supports those efforts.

Kantianism

Immanuel Kant is regarded as one of the most influential thinkers of the lateEnlightenment.

Kantianism is a philosophy based on the ethical, epistemological and metaphysical works of Immanuel Kant. Kant is known for hisdeontological theory where there is a single moral obligation, the "Categorical Imperative", derived from the concept ofduty. Kantians believe all actions are performed in accordance with some underlying maxim or principle, and for actions to be ethical, they must adhere to the categorical imperative.

Simply put, the test is that one must universalize the maxim (imagine that all people acted in this way) and then see if it would still be possible to perform the maxim in the world. In Groundwork, Kant gives the example of a person who seeks to borrow money without intending to pay it back. This is a contradiction because if it were a universal action, no person would lend money anymore as he knows that he will never be paid back. The maxim of this action, says Kant, results in a contradiction in conceivability (and thus contradicts perfect duty).

Kant also denied that the consequences of an act in any way contribute to the moral worth of that act, his reasoning being that the physical world is outside our full control and thus we cannot be held accountable for the events that occur in it.

19th Century philosophy

Further information: 19th century philosophy

Utilitarianism

Jeremy Bentham

The origins of utilitarianism can be traced back as far as Epicurus, but, as a school of thought, it is credited to Jeremy Bentham,^[72] who found that nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure, then, from that moral insight, deriving the Rule of Utility: that the good is whatever brings the greatest happiness to the greatest number of people. He defined the meaning of life as the "greatest happiness principle".

Jeremy Bentham's foremost proponent was James Mill, a significant philosopher in his day, and father of John Stuart Mill. The younger Mill was educated per Bentham's principles, including transcribing and summarising much of his father's work.^[73]

Marxism

According to Marxism and communism, the meaning of life is to serve one another.

Nihilism

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Nihilism rejects any authority's claims to knowledge and truth, and so explores the significance of existence without knowable truth. Rather than insisting that values are subjective, and might be warrantless, the nihilist says: Nothing is of value, morals are valueless, they only serve as society's false ideals. Despite tending towards defeatism or fatalism, one can find strength and reason in the varied, unique human relations nihilism explores.

Friedrich Nietzsche characterized nihilism as emptying the world, and especially human existence, of meaning, purpose, comprehensible truth, and essential value; succinctly, nihilism is the process of "the devaluing of the highest values".^[74] Seeing the nihilist as a natural result of the idea that God is dead, and insisting it was something to overcome, his questioning of the nihilist's life-negating values, returned meaning to the Earth.^[75]

The End of the World, by John Martin.

To Martin Heidegger, nihilism is the movement whereby "being" is forgotten, and is transformed into value, in other words, the reduction of being to exchange value.^[74] Heidegger, in accordance with Nietzsche, saw in the so-called "death of God" a potential source for nihilism:

If God, as the supra-sensory ground and goal, of all reality, is dead; if the supra-sensory world of the Ideas has suffered the loss of its obligatory, and above it, its vitalizing and up-building power, then nothing more remains to which Man can cling, and by which he can orient himself.^[76]

The existentialist Albert Camus asserts that the absurdity of the human condition is that we search for external values and meaning in a world which has none, and is indifferent to us. Camus writes of value-nihilists such as Meusrault^[77], but also of values in a nihilistic world, that we can instead strive to be "heroic nihilists", living with dignity in the face of absurdity, living with "secular saintliness", fraternal solidarity, and rebelling against and transcending the world's indifference.^[78]

20th Century philosophy

Further information: 20th century philosophy

The current era has seen radical changes in conceptions of human nature. Modern science has effectively rewritten the relationship of humankind to the natural world, advances in medicine and technology have freed us from the limitations and ailments of previous eras, and philosophy —particularly following the linguistic turn— altered how the relationships people have with themselves and each other is conceived. Questions about the meaning of life have seen equally radical changes, from attempts to re-evaluate human existence in biological and scientific terms (as in pragmatism and logical positivism), to efforts to meta-theorize about meaning-making as an activity (existentialism, secular humanism).

Pragmatism

Pragmatism, originated in the late-nineteenth-century U.S., to concern itself (mostly) with truth, positing that only in struggling with the environmentdo data, and derived theories, have meaning, and that consequences, like utility and practicality, also are components of truth. Moreover, pragmatism posits that anything useful and practical is not always true, arguing that what most contributes to the most human good in the long course is true. In practice, theoretical claims must be practically verifiable, i.e. one should be able to predict and test claims, and, that, ultimately, the needs of mankind should guide human intellectual inquiry.

Pragmatic philosophers suggest that the practical, useful understanding of life is more important than searching for an impractical abstract truth about life. William James argued that truth could be made, but not sought.^[79]^[80] To a pragmatist, the meaning of life is discoverable only via experience.

Existentialism

Main article: Meaning (existential)

Edvard Munch's The Scream, a representation of existential angst.

Each man and each woman creates the essence (meaning) of his and her life; life is not determined by a supernatural god or an earthly authority, one is free. As such, one's ethical prime directives are action, freedom, and decision, thus, existentialismopposes rationalism and positivism. In seeking meaning to life, the existentialist looks to where people find meaning in life, in course of which using only reason as a source of meaning is insufficient; the insufficiency gives rise to the emotions of anxietyand dread, felt in facing one's radical freedom, and the concomitant awareness of death. To the existentialist, existence precedes essence; the (essence) of one's life arises only after one comes to existence.

Søren Kierkegaard coined the term "leap of faith", arguing that life is full of absurdity, and one must make his and her own values in an indifferent world. One can live meaningfully (free of despair and anxiety) in an unconditional commitment to something finite, and devotes that meaningful life to the commitment, despite the vulnerability inherent to doing so.^[81]

Arthur Schopenhauer answered: "What is the meaning of life?" by determining that one's life reflects one's will, and that the will (life) is an aimless, irrational, and painful drive. Salvation, deliverance, and escape from suffering are in aesthetic contemplation, sympathy for others, and asceticism.^[82]^[83]

For Friedrich Nietzsche, life is worth living only if there are goals inspiring one to live. Accordingly, he saw nihilism ("all that happens is meaningless") as without goals. He discredited asceticism, because it denies one's living in the world; denied that values are objective facts, that are rationally unnecessary, universally-binding commitments: Our evaluations are interpretations, and not reflections of the world, as it is, in itself, and, therefore, all ideations take place from a particular perspective.^[75]

Absurdism

Albert Camus, the French Algerian philosopher who is often associated with existentialism but enthusiastically refused the term^[84], is famous for propounding his theory of the absurd. According to absurdism, there is a fundamental disharmony that arises out of the co-presence of man and the universe. Man has a desire for order, meaning, and purpose in life, but the universe is indifferent and meaningless; the Absurd arises out of this conflict.

As beings looking for hope in a meaningless world, Camus says there are three solutions to this dilemma.

Suicide:The first solution to the dilemma is simply to end one's life. Camus rejects this choice as cowardly.

Religious belief in a transcendent world: Such a belief would posit the existence of a realm that is beyond the Absurd, and, as such, has meaning. Camus calls this solution “philosophical suicide” and rejects it because it amounts to the destruction of reason, which in his view is as fatal as suicide of the body.

Accept the Absurd: According to Camus, this is the only real solution. It is to accept or even embrace the absurdity of life and to continue living. The Absurd is a crucial characteristic of the human condition, and the only true way to deal with this is bold acceptance of it. Life, according to Camus, can “be lived all the better if it has no meaning.”^[85]

Secular humanism

Further information: Secular Humanism and Humanism (life stance)

The "Happy Human" symbol representingSecular Humanism.

Per secular humanism, the human race came to be by reproducing in a progression of unguided evolution as an integral part of nature, which is self-existing.^[86]^[87] Knowledge does not come from supernatural sources, but from human observation, experimentation, and rational analysis (the scientific method): the nature of the universe is what people discern it to be.^[86] Like-wise, "values and realities" are determined "by means of intelligent inquiry"^[86] and "are derived from human need and interest as tested by experience", that is, by critical intelligence.^[88]^[89] "As far as we know, the total personality is [a function] of the biological organism transacting in a social and cultural context."^[87]

People determine human purpose, without supernatural influence; it is the human personality (general sense) that is the purpose of a human being's life; humanism seeks to develop and fulfill:^[86] "Humanism affirms our ability, and responsibility, to lead ethical lives of personal fulfillment that aspire to the greater good of humanity".^[88] Humanists promote enlightened self-interestand the common good for all people. The happiness of the individual person is inextricably linked to the well-being of humanity, as a whole, in part, because we are social animals, who find meaning in personal relations, and because cultural progress benefits everybody living in the culture.^[87]^[88]

The philosophical sub-genres posthumanism and transhumanism (sometimes used synonymously) are extensions of humanistic values. One should seek the advancement of humanity and of all life to the greatest degree feasible, to reconcile Renaissance humanism with the twenty-first century'stechnoscientific culture, thus, every living creature has the right to determine its personal and social "meaning of life".^[90]

From a humanistic-psychotherapeutic point of view, the question of the meaning of life could also be reinterpreted as "What is the meaning of my life?"^[91]Instead of becoming bogged down in cosmic or religious question about overarching purpose, this approach suggests that the question is intensely personal. There are many therapeutic responses to this question, for example Viktor Frankl argues for "Dereflection", which largely translates as ceasing to endlessly reflect on the self, instead of engaging in life. On the whole, the therapeutic response is that the question of meaning of life evaporates if one is fully engaged in life. The question then morphs into more specific worries such as "What delusions am I under?", "What is blocking my ability to enjoy things?", "Why do I neglect loved-ones?". See also Existential Therapy, Irvin Yalom.

Logical positivism

Logical positivists ask: What is the meaning of life? and What is the meaning in asking?^[92]^[93] If there are no objective values, then, is life meaningless?^[94] Ludwig Wittgenstein and the logical positivists said: Expressed in language, the question is meaningless; because, in life the statement the "meaning of x", usually denotes the consequences of x, or the significance of x, or what is notable about x, et cetera, thus, when the meaning of life concept equals "x", in the statement the "meaning of x", the statement becomes recursive, and, therefore, nonsensical, or it might refer to the fact that biological life is essential to having a meaning in life.

The things (people, events) in the life of a person can have meaning (importance) as parts of a whole, but a discrete meaning of (the) life, itself, aside from those things, cannot be discerned. A person's life has meaning (for himself, others) as the life events resulting from his achievements, legacy, family, et cetera, but, to say that life, itself, has meaning, is a misuse of language, since any note of significance, or of consequence, is relevant only in life (to the living), so rendering the statement erroneous. Bertrand Russell wrote that although he found that his distaste for torture was not like his distaste for broccoli, he found no satisfactory, empirical method of proving this:^[70]

When we try to be definite, as to what we mean when we say that this or that is "the Good," we find ourselves involved in very great difficulties. Bentham's creed, that pleasure is the Good, roused furious opposition, and was said to be a pig's philosophy. Neither he nor his opponents could advance any argument. In a scientific question, evidence can be adduced on both sides, and, in the end, one side is seen to have the better case — or, if this does not happen, the question is left undecided. But in a question, as to whether this, or that, is the ultimate Good, there is no evidence, either way; each disputant can only appeal to his own emotions, and employ such rhetorical devices as shall rouse similar emotions in others . . . Questions as to "values" — that is to say, as to what is good or bad on its own account, independently of its effects — lie outside the domain of science, as the defenders of religion emphatically assert. I think that, in this, they are right, but, I draw the further conclusion, which they do not draw, that questions as to "values" lie wholly outside the domain of knowledge. That is to say, when we assert that this, or that, has "value", we are giving expression to our own emotions, not to a fact, which would still be true if our personal feelings were different.^[95]

Postmodernism

This section requires expansion.

Further information: Postmodernism

Postmodernist thought - broadly speaking - sees human nature as constructed by language, or by structures and institutions of human society. Unlike other forms of philosophy, postmodernism rarely seeks out a priori or innate meanings in human existence, but instead focuses on analyzing or critiquing givenmeanings in order to rationalize or reconstruct them. Anything resembling a 'meaning of life', in postmodernist terms, can only be understood within a social and linguistic framework, and must be pursued as an escape from the power structures that are already embedded in all forms of speech and interaction. As a rule, postmodernists see awareness of the constraints of language as necessary to escaping those constraints, but different theorists take different views on the nature of this process: from radical reconstruction of meaning by individuals (as in deconstructionism) to theories in which individuals are primarily extensions of language and society, without real autonomy (as in poststructuralism). In general, postmodernism seeks meaning by looking at the underlying structures that create or impose meaning, rather than the epiphenomenal appearances of the world.

Naturalistic pantheism

According to naturalistic pantheism, the meaning of life is to care for and look after nature and the environment.

Religious perspectives

The religious perspectives on the meaning of life are those ideologies which explain life in terms of an implicit purpose not defined by humans.

Western religions (origins in the Middle East)

Symbols of the three main Abrahamic religions – Judaism, Christianity, and Islam

Further information: Abrahamic religion and Iranian philosophy

Zoroastrianism

Zoroastrianism is the religion and philosophy named after its prophet Zoroaster, which influenced the beliefs of Judaism and its descendant religions. Zoroastrians believe in a universe created by a transcendental God, Ahura Mazda, to whom all worship is ultimately directed. Azhura Mazda's creation is asha, truth and order, and it is in conflict with its antithesis, druj, falsehood and disorder. (See also Zoroastrian eschatology).

Since humanity possesses free will, people must be responsible for their moral choices. By using free will, people must take active role to play in the universal conflict, where good thoughts, good words and good deeds to ensure happiness and to keep chaos at bay.

Judaism

Judaism's most important feature is the worshiping of a single, omniscient, omnipotent, omnibenevolent, transcendent God, who created the universe and governs it. Per traditional Judaism, God established a covenant with the Jewish people, at Mount Sinai, revealing his laws andcommandments in the Torah. In Rabbinic Judaism, the Torah comprises the written Pentateuch (Torah) and the oral law tradition (later transcribed as sacred writing).

In the Judaic world view, the purpose of life is to serve the one true God and to prepare for the world to come.^[96]^[97] The "Olam Haba"^[98]thought is about elevating oneself spiritually, connecting to God in preparing for "Olam Haba"; Jewish thought is to use "Olam Hazeh" (this world) to elevate oneself. ^[99]

Christianity

Hans Memling's The Last Judgment, which depicts St Michael the Archangelweighing souls and driving the Damnedtowards Hell.

Though Christianity has its roots in Judaism, and shares much of the latter faith's ontology, its central beliefs derive from the teachings of Jesus Christ, as presented in the New Testament. Life's purpose in Christianity is to seek divine salvation through the grace of God and intercession of Christ.^{[citation needed]} The New Testament speaks of God wanting to have a relationship with humans both in this life and the life to come, which can happen only if one's sins are forgiven (John 3:16-21), (2 Peter 3:9). In the Christian view, humankind was made in the image of Godand perfect, but the Fall of Man caused the progeny of the first Parents to inherit Original Sin. The sacrifice of Christ's passion, death and resurrection provide the means for transcending that impure state (Romans 6:23). The means for doing so varies between different groups of Christians, but all rely on one form or another of subjugation to God's will.

Under the Christian view, the main purpose in life is to live like Christ did (perfect altruism) to love God with all one's heart, soul, and mind, and to love fellow human beings as you should be loved.

In the Westminster Shorter Catechism, the first question is: What is the chief end of Man?, that is, What is Man's main purpose?. The answer is: Man's chief end is to glorify God, and enjoy him forever. God requires one to obey the revealed moral law saying: love the Lord our God with all our heart, with all our soul, with all our strength, and with all our mind; and our neighbour as ourselves.^[100] The Baltimore Catechism answers the question "Why did God make you?" by saying "God made me to know Him, to love Him, and to serve Him in this world, and to be happy with Him forever in heaven."^[101]

The Apostle Paul also answers this question in his speech on the Areopagus in Athens:

From one man he made every nation of men, that they should inhabit the whole earth; and he determined the times set for them and the exact places where they should live. God did this so that men would seek him and perhaps reach out for him and find him, though he is not far from each one of us. (Bible,Acts 17:26-27, NKJV)

Islam

In Islam, Man's ultimate life objective is to seek the pleasure of Allah (the Arabic equivalent for "God") by abiding by the Divine guidelines revealed in the Qur'an and the Tradition of the Prophet. Earthly life is merely a test, determining one's afterlife, either in Jannat (paradise) or in Jahannum(Hell).

For the pleasure of Allah, via the Qur'an, all Muslims must believe in God, his revelations, his angels, his messengers, and in the "Day of Judgment".^[102]Qur'an describes the purpose of creation as follows: "Blessed be he in whose hand is the kingdom, he is powerful over all things,who created death and life that he might examine which of you is best in deeds, and he is the almighty, the forgiving" (Qur'an67:1-2)and "I only created jinn and man to worship Me" (Qur'an 51:56). Worship testifies to the oneness of God in his lordship, his names, and his attributes. Terrenal life is a test; how one acts (behaves) determines whether one's soul goes to Jannat (Heaven) or to Jahannam (Hell).

The Five Pillars of Islam are duties incumbent to every Muslim; they are: Shahadah (profession of faith); Salah (ritual prayer); Zakah (charity); Sawm(fasting during Ramadan), and Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca).^[103] They derive from the Hadith works, notably of Sahih Al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim.

Beliefs differ among the Kalam. The Sunni concept of pre-destination is divine decree;^[104] like-wise, the Shi'a concept of pre-destination is divine justice; in the esoteric view of the Sufis, the universe exists only for God's pleasure; Creation is a grand game, wherein Allah is the greatest prize.^[105]^[105]

Bahá'í Faith

The Bahá'í Faith, founded by Bahá'u'lláh, emphasizes the unity of humanity.^[106] To Bahá'ís, the purpose of life is focused on spiritual growth and service to humanity. Human beings are viewed as intrinsically spiritual beings. Our lives in this material world provide extended opportunities to grow, and theprophets were sent by God to facilitate this.^[107]^[108]

South Asian Religions

Further information: Indian religions and Indian philosophy

Hindu philosophies

Further information: Hinduism, Hindu philosophy, and Dharma

A golden Aumwritten inDevanagari. The Aum is sacred inHindu, Jain andBuddhistreligions.

Hinduism is a religious category including many beliefs and traditions. Since Hinduism was the way of expressed meaningful living for quite a long time immemorial, when there was no need for naming this as a separate religion, hindu doctrines are supplementary and complementary in nature, generally non-exclusive, suggestive and tolerant in content.^[109] Most believe that the ātman (spirit, soul) — the person's true self — is eternal.^[110] In part, this stems from Hindu beliefs that spiritual development occurs across many lifetimes, and goals should match the state of development of the individual. There are four possible aims to human life, known as thepurusharthas (ordered from least to greatest): Kāma (love and sensual pleasure), Artha (wealth), Dharma (righteousness, morality), andMoksha (liberation from the reincarnation cycle).^[111]^[112]^[113]

In all schools of Hinduism, the meaning of life is tied up in the concepts of karma (causal action), samsara (the cycle of birth and rebirth), and moksha (liberation). Existence is conceived as the progression of the atman (similar to the western concept of a soul) across numerous lifetimes, and its ultimate progression towards liberation from karma. Particular goals for life are generally subsumed under broader yogas (practices) or dharma (correct living) which are intended to create more favorable reincarnations, though they are generally positive acts in this life as well. Traditional schools of Hinduism often worship Devas which are manifestations of Ishvara(a personal or chosen God); these Devas are taken as ideal forms to be identified with, as a form of spiritual improvement.

Advaita and Dvaita Hinduism

Further information: Advaita Vedanta and Dvaita

Later schools reinterpreted the vedas to focus on Brahman, "The One Without a Second",^[114] as a central God-like figure.

In monist Advaita Vedanta, atman is ultimately indistinguishable from brahman, and the goal of life is to know or realize that one's atman (soul) is identical to Brahman.^[115] To the Upanishads, whoever becomes fully aware of the ātman, as one's core of self, realises identity with Brahman, and, thereby, achieves Moksha (liberation, freedom).^[110]^[116]^[117]

Dualist Dvaita Vedanta and other bhakti schools have a dualist interpretation. Brahman is seen as a supreme being with a personality and manifest qualities. The ātman depends upon brahman for its existence; the meaning of life is achieving Moksha through love of God and upon his grace.^[116]

Vaishnavism

Another branch of Hinduism is Vaishnavism, where Vishnu is the principal deity. Not all schools of Vaishnavism teach a meaning to life, but Gaudiya Vaishnavism, for example, teaches Achintya Bheda Abheda meaning worship of a separate and single true God while at the same time acknowledging the essential oneness of all souls.

Jainism

The Jainist Vow of Ahimsa. Thedharmacakra (wheel) is the resolve to halt the cycle of reincarnation via truth and non-violence.

Further information: Jainism and Jain philosophy

Jainism is a religion originating in ancient India, its ethical system promotes self-discipline above all else. Through following theascetic teachings of Jina, a human achieves enlightenment (perfect knowledge). Jainism divides the universe into living and non-living beings. Only when the non-living become attached to the living does suffering result. Therefore, happiness is the result of self-conquest and freedom from external objects. The meaning of life may then be said to be to use the physical body to achieve self-realization and bliss.^[118]

Jains believe that every human is responsible for his or her actions and all living beings have an eternal soul, jīva. Jains believe all souls are equal because they all possess the potential of being liberated and attaining Moksha. The Jain view of karma is that every action, every word, every thought produces, besides its visible, an invisible, transcendental effect on the soul.

Jainism includes strict adherence to ahimsa (or ahinsā), a form of nonviolence that goes far beyond vegetarianism. Jains refuse food obtained with unnecessary cruelty. Many practice a lifestyle similar to Veganism due to the violence of modern dairy farms, and others exclude root vegetables from their diets in order to preserve the lives of the plants from which they eat.^[119]

Buddhism

Early Buddhism

Buddhism is a nondual doctrine, in which subject, object, and action are all seen as illusory. Buddhists believe that life issuffering or frustration. The suffering is caused by attachment to objects material or non-material which in turn causes one to be born again and again in the cycle of existence. The meaning of life is to end suffering through detaching oneself from cravings and conceptual attachments. Suffering can be overcome through human activity, simply by removing the cause of suffering. Attaining and perfecting dispassion is a process of many levels that ultimately results in the state of Nirvana. Nirvana means freedom from both suffering and rebirth.^[120]

The eight-spokedDharmacakra

Theravada Buddhism is generally considered to be close to the early Buddhist practice. It promotes the concept of Vibhajjavada(Pali), literally "Teaching of Analysis", which says that insight must come from the aspirant's experience, critical investigation, and reasoning instead of by blind faith. However, the Theravadin tradition also emphasizes heeding the advice of the wise, considering such advice and evaluation of one's own experiences to be the two tests by which practices should be judged. The Theravadin goal is liberation (or freedom) from suffering, according to the Four Noble Truths. This is attained in the achievement ofNirvana, or Unbinding which also ends the repeated cycle of birth, old age, sickness and death.

Mahayana Buddhism

Further information: Mahayana

Mahayana Buddhist schools de-emphasize the traditional view (still practiced in Theravada) of the release from individual Suffering(Dukkha) and attainment of Awakening (Nirvana). In Mahayana, the Buddha is seen as an eternal, immutable, inconceivable, omnipresent being. The fundamental principles of Mahayana doctrine are based around the possibility of universal liberation from suffering for all beings, and the existence of the transcendent Buddha-nature, which is the eternal Buddha essence present, but hidden and unrecognised, in all living beings.

Philosophical schools of Mahayana Buddhism, such as Chan/Zen and the vajrayana Tibetan and Shingon schools, explicitly teach that boddhisattvas should refrain from full liberation, allowing themselves to be reincarnated into the world until all beings achieve enlightenment. Devotional schools such asPure Land buddhism seek the aid of celestial buddhas - individuals who have spent lifetimes accumulating positive karma, and use that accumulation to aid all.

Sikhism

The Khanda, an important symbol of Sikhism.

The monastic Sikh religion was founded by Guru Nanak Dev, the term "sikh" means student, which denotes that followers will lead their lives forever learning. This system of religious philosophy and expression has been traditionally known as the Gurmat (literally the counsel of the gurus) or the Sikh Dharma. The followers of Sikhism are ordained to follow the teachings of the ten Sikh gurus, or enlightened leaders, as well as the holy scripture entitled the Gurū Granth Sāhib, which includes selected works of many philosophers from diverse socio-economic and religious backgrounds.

The Sikh Gurus tell us that salvation can be obtained by following various spiritual paths, so Sikhs do not have a monopoly on salvation: "The Lord dwells in every heart, and every heart has its own way to reach Him."^[121] Sikhs believe that all people are equally important before God.^[122] Sikhs balance their moral and spiritual values with the quest for knowledge, and they aim to promote a life of peace and equality but also of positive action.^[123]

A key distinctive feature of Sikhism is a non-anthropomorphic concept of God, to the extent that one can interpret God as the Universeitself (pantheism). Sikhism thus sees life as an opportunity to understand this God as well as to discover the divinity which lies in each individual. While a full understanding of God is beyond human beings,^[124] Nanak described God as not wholly unknowable, and stressed that God must be seen from "the inward eye", or the "heart", of a human being: devotees must meditate to progress towards enlightenment. Nanak emphasized the revelation through meditation, as its rigorous application permits the existence of communication between God and human beings.^[124]

Far Eastern Religions

Further information: Chinese philosophy and Japanese philosophy

Shinto

Shinto torii, a traditional Japanese gate

Shinto is the native religion of Japan. Shinto means "the path of the kami", but more specifically, it can be taken to mean "the divine crossroad where the kami chooses his way". The 'divine' crossroad signifies that all the universe is divine spirit. This foundation offree will, choosing one's way, means that life is a creative process.

Shinto wants life to live, not to die. Shinto sees death as pollution and regards life as the realm where the divine spirit seeks to purify itself by rightful self-development. Shinto wants individual human life to be prolonged forever on earth as a victory of the divine spirit in preserving its objective personality in its highest forms. The presence of evil in the world, as conceived by Shinto, does not stultify the divine nature by imposing on divinity responsibility for being able to relieve human suffering while refusing to do so. The sufferings of life are the sufferings of the divine spirit in search of progress in the objective world.^[125]

Taoism

Taijitusymbolizes theunity of oppositesbetween yin and yang.

The Taoists' cosmogony emphasizes the need for all sentient beings and all man to return to the primordial or to rejoin with the Onenessof the Universe by way of self cultivation and self realization. All adherents should understand and be in tune with the ultimate truth.

They believe all things were originally from Taiji and Tao, and the meaning in life for the adherents is to realise the temporal nature of the existence. "Only introspection can then help us to find our innermost reasons for living...the simple answer is here within ourselves."^[126]

Confucianism

Confucianism recognizes human nature in accordance with the need for discipline and education. Because mankind is driven by both positive and negative influences, Confucianists see a goal in achieving the good nature through strong relationships and reasoning as well as minimizing the negative energy. This emphasis on normal living is seen in the Confucianist scholar Tu Wei-Ming's quote, "we can realize the ultimate meaning of life in ordinary human existence."^[127]

New religions

There are many new religious movements in East Asia, and some with millions of followers: Chondogyo, Tenrikyo, Cao Đài, and Seicho-No-Ie. New religions typically have unique explanations for the meaning of life. For example, in Tenrikyo, one is expected to live a Joyous Life by participating in practices that create happiness for oneself and others.

The meaning of life in popular culture

The mystery of life and its meaning is an often recurring subject in popular culture, featured in entertainment media and various forms of art.

Charles Allan Gilbert's All is Vanity depicts a young woman gazing at her reflection in a mirror, but all is positioned in such a way as to make the image of askull appear.

In Douglas Adams' popular comedy book series The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, the Answer to the Ultimate Question of Life, the Universe and Everything has the numeric solution of 42, which was derived over seven and a half million years by a giantsupercomputer called Deep Thought. After much confusion from the descendants of his creators, Deep Thought explains that the problem is that they do not know the Ultimate Question, and they would have to build an even more powerful computer to determine what that is. This computer is revealed to be Earth, which, after 10 million years of calculating, is destroyed to make way for a galactic bypass five minutes before it finishes calculations.^[6]^[8]^[12]^[128] In Life, the Universe and Everything, it is confirmed that 42 is indeed the Ultimate Answer, and that it is impossible for both the Ultimate Answer and the Ultimate Question to be known about in the same universe, as they will cancel each other out and take the universe with them, to be replaced by something even more bizarre, and that this may have already happened.^[129] Subsequently, in the hopes that his subconscious holds the question, Arthur Dent guesses at a question, coming up with "What do you get when you multiply six by nine?", probably an incorrect guess, as the arrival of theGolgafrinchans on prehistoric Earth would have disrupted the computation process.^[130] However, Dent, Fenchurch, and a dying Marvindid see God's final message to his creation: "We apologise for the inconvenience".^[131]

Hamlet with Yorick's skull

In Monty Python's The Meaning of Life, there are several allusions to the meaning of life. In "Part VI B: The Meaning of Life" a cleaning lady explains "Life's a game, you sometimes win or lose" and later a waiter describes his personal philosophy "The world is a beautiful place. You must go into it, and love everyone, not hate people. You must try and make everyone happy, and bring peace and contentment everywhere you go."^[132] At the end of the film, we can see Michael Palin being handed an envelope, he opens it, and provides the viewers with 'the meaning of life': "Well, it's nothing very special. Uh, try to be nice to people, avoid eating fat, read a good book every now and then, get some walking in, and try to live together in peace and harmony with people of all creeds and nations."^[132]^[133]^[134]

In The Simpsons episode "Homer the Heretic", a representation of God tells Homer what the meaning of life is, but as usual the one who really wanted to know (the viewer) is left disappointed. Just before God tells Homer the meaning of life, the credits music starts and the show ends, interrupting God's explanation to humorous effect. Earlier in the episode, Homer founds his own religion, in which he tries to worship God in his own way, later pointing out to Moe that it has no hell and no kneeling. However, Homer quickly abandons his self-indulgent personal religion after his house almost burns down, taking the fire as a sign of divine retribution, and exclaiming "O Spiteful One, show me who to smite, and he shall be smoten." Ned assures Homer that the fire was not God's vengeance and Lovejoy explains that God was "working in the hearts of your friends and neighbors when they came to your aid."^[135]

At the end of The Matrix Revolutions, Smith concludes that "the purpose of life is to end" and is determined to move that purpose along.^[136] The Matrixseries also presents the idea of "living in a simulated reality" and the associated question whether such an existence should be considered meaningless, in a way that may be compared to Plato's allegory of the cave and how certain belief systems view our reality, like Buddhism or Gnosticism.^[137]

Popular views

"What is the meaning of life?" is a question many people ask themselves at some point during their lives, most in the context "What is the purpose of life?"^[5] Here are some of the life goals people choose, and some of their beliefs on what the purpose of life is:

...to realize one's potential and ideals

...to chase dreams.^[7]
...to live one's dreams.^[138]
...to spend it for something that will outlast it.^[139]
...to matter: to count, to stand for something, to have made some difference that you lived at all.^[139]
...to expand one's potential in life.^[138]
...to become the person you've always wanted to be.^[140]
...to become the best version of yourself.^[141]
...to seek happiness^[142]^[143] and flourish.^[8]
...to be a true authentic human being.^[144]
...to be able to put the whole of oneself into one's feelings, one's work, one's beliefs.^[139]
...to follow our destiny.^[145]
...to submit to our destiny.^[146]
...to create your own destiny.^[147]
...to achieve eudaimonia ^[148]

...to achieve biological perfection

...to survive,^[149] that is, to live as long as possible,^[150] including pursuit of immortality (through scientific means).^[151]
...to live forever^[151] or die trying.^[152]
...to evolve.^[153]^[154]
...to replicate, to reproduce.^[7] "The 'dream' of every cell is to become two cells."^[155]^[156]^[157]^[158]
...to be fruitful and multiply.^[159] (Genesis 1:28)

...to seek wisdom and knowledge

Philosopher in Meditation (detail) byRembrandt

...to expand one's perception of the world.^[138]
...to follow the clues and walk out the exit.^[160]
...to learn as many things as possible in life.^[161]
...to know as much as possible about as many things as possible.^[162]
...to seek wisdom and knowledge and to tame the mind, as to avoid suffering caused by ignorance and find happiness.^[163]
...to face our fears and accept the lessons life offers us.^[145]
...to find the meaning of life.^[164]
...to find the purpose of life.^[165]
...to find a reason to live.^[166]
...to resolve the imbalance of the mind by understanding the nature of reality.^[167]

...to do good, to do the right thing

...to leave the world a better place than you found it.^[7]
...to do your best to leave every situation better than you found it.^[7]
...to benefit others.^[13]
...to give more than you take.^[7]
...to end suffering.^[168]^[169]^[170]
...to create equality.^[171]^[172]^[173]
...to challenge oppression.^[174]
...to distribute wealth.^[175]^[176]
...to be generous.^[177]^[178]
...to contribute to the well-being and spirit of others.^[179]
...to help others,^[8]^[178] to help one another.^[180]
...to take every chance to help another while on your journey here.^[7]
...to be creative and innovative.^[179]
...to forgive.^[7]
...to accept and forgive human flaws.^[181]
...to be emotionally sincere.^[139]
...to be responsible.^[139]
...to be honorable.^[139]
...to seek peace.^[139]

Dante and Beatrice see God as a point of light surrounded by angels; from Gustave Doré's illustrations for the Divine Comedy

...to attain spiritual enlightenment

...to reach the highest heaven and be at the heart of the Divine.^[182]
...to have a pure soul and experience God.^[139]
...to understand the mystery of God.^[145]
...to know God.^[183]
...to know oneself, know others, and know the will of heaven.^[184]
...to attain union with God.^[185]

...to love, to feel, to enjoy the act of living

...to love more.^[7]
...to love those who mean the most. Every life you touch will touch you back.^[7]
...to treasure every enjoyable sensation one has.^[7]
...to seek beauty in all its forms.^[7]
...to have fun.^[179]
...to enjoy life.^[145]
...to seek pleasure^[139] and avoid pain.^[186]
...to be compassionate.^[139]
...to be moved by the tears and pain of others, and try to help them out of love and compassion.^[7]
...to love others as best we possibly can.^[7]
...to love something bigger, greater, and beyond ourselves, something we did not create or have the power to create, something intangible and made holy by our very belief in it.^[7]
...to love God^[183] and all of his creations.^[187]
...to glorify God by enjoying him forever.^[188]

...to have power, to be better

...to strive for power^[75] and superiority.^[186]
...to rule the world.^[146]
...to know and master the world.^[189]^[190]
...to know and master nature.^[191]
...to fill the Earth and subdue it.^[159] (Genesis 1:28)

One should not seek to know and understand the meaning of life

The answer to the meaning of life is too profound to be known and understood.^[167]
You will never live if you are looking for the meaning of life.^[7]
The meaning of life is to forget about the search for the meaning of life.^[7]
One should live the life given to you instead.

Life has no meaning

Life or human existence has no real meaning or purpose because human existence occurred out of a random chance in nature, and anything that exists by chance has no intended purpose.^[167]
Life has no meaning, but as humans we try to associate a meaning or purpose so we can justify our existence.^[7]
There is no point in life, and that is exactly what makes it so special.^[7]
Life is a bitch, and then you die.^[140]
Life sucks and in the end you die.^[174]

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^ For dharma, artha, and kama as "brahmanic householder values" see: Flood (1996), p. 17.
^ For the Dharma Śāstras as discussing the "four main goals of life" (dharma, artha, kāma, and moksha) see: Hopkins, p. 78.
^ For definition of the term पुरुष-अर्थ (puruṣa-artha) as "any of the four principal objects of human life, i.e. धर्म, अर्थ, काम, and मोक्ष" see: Apte, p. 626, middle column, compound #1.
^ Bhaskarananda, Swami (1994), written at Seattle, WA, The Essentials of Hinduism: a comprehensive overview of the world's oldest religion, Viveka Press, ISBN 1-884852-02-5
^ Vivekananda, Swami (1987), written at Calcutta, Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, Advaita Ashrama, ISBN 81-85301-75-1
^ ^a ^b Werner, Karel (1994), "Hinduism", written at Richmond, Surrey, in Hinnells, John (Ed.), A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism, Curzon Press, ISBN 0-7007-0279-2
^ See also the Vedic statement "ayam ātmā brahma" (This Atman is Brahman)
^ Shah, Natubhai. Jainism: The World of Conquerors. Sussex Academic Press, 1998.
^ "Viren, Jain" (PDF). RE Today. Retrieved on 2007-06-14.
^ http://www.thebigview.com/buddhism/fourtruths.html
^ Daljeet Singh (1971). Guru Tegh Bahadur. Language Dept., Punjab.
^ Jon Mayled (2002). Modern World Religions: Sikhism. Harcourt Heinemann. ISBN 0435336266.
^ The Sikh Coalition
^ ^a ^b Parrinder, Geoffrey (1971). World Religions: From Ancient History to the Present. United States: Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited. ISBN 0-87196-129-6.
^ J. W. T. Mason (2002). The Meaning of Shinto. Trafford Publishing. ISBN 1412245516.
^ Ming-Dao Deng (1990). Scholar Warrior: An Introduction to the Tao in Everyday Life. HarperCollins.
^ Tu, Wei-Ming. Confucian Thought: Selfhood as Creative Transformation. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1985.
^ Douglas Adams (1979). The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. London: Pan Books. ISBN 0-330-25864-8.
^ Douglas Adams (1982). Life, the Universe and Everything. London: Pan. ISBN 0-330-26738-8.
^ Douglas Adams (1 January 1980). The Restaurant at the End of the Universe. New York: Ballantine Books. ISBN 0-345-39181-0.
^ Douglas Adams (1985). So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish. London: Pan. ISBN 0-330-28700-1.
^ ^a ^b Monty Python's Completely Useless Web Site: Monty Python's The Meaning Of Life: Complete Script
^ Terry Burnham (2005). Mean Markets and Lizard Brains: How to Profit from the New Science of Irrationality. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0471716952.
^ Yolanda Fernandez (2002). In Their Shoes: Examining the Issue of Empathy and Its Place in the Treatment of Offenders. Wood 'N' Barnes Publishing. ISBN 1885473486.
^ Mark I. Pinsky (2001). The Gospel According To The Simpsons: The Spiritual Life Of The World's Most Animated Family. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 0664224199.
^ Matt Lawrence (2004). Like a Splinter in Your Mind: The Philosophy Behind the Matrix Trilogy. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405125241.
^ Christopher Grau (2005). Philosophers Explore the Matrix. Oxford University Press.
^ ^a ^b ^c Roger Ellerton PhD, CMC (2006). Live Your Dreams... Let Reality Catch Up: NLP and Common Sense for Coaches, Managers and You. Trafford Publishing. ISBN 1412047099.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j John Cook (2007). The Book of Positive Quotations. Fairview Press. ISBN 1577491696.
^ ^a ^b Steve Chandler (2005). Reinventing Yourself: How to Become the Person You've Always Wanted to Be. Career Press. ISBN 1564148173.
^ Matthew Kelly (2005). The Rhythm of Life: Living Every Day with Passion and Purpose. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0743265106.
^ Lee, Dong Yul; Park, Sung Hee; Uhlemann, Max R.; Patsult, Philip (June 2000). "What Makes You Happy?: A Comparison of Self-reported Criteria of Happiness Between Two Cultures". Social Indicators Research 50 (3): pp. 351–362. doi:10.1023/A:1004647517069. Retrieved on 2007-07-26.
^ Social perspectives, ACM Digital Library
^ John Kultgen (1995). Autonomy and Intervention: Parentalism in the Caring Life. Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0195085310.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d George Cappannelli; Sedena Cappannelli (2004). Authenticity: Simple Strategies for Greater Meaning and Purpose at Work and at Home. Emmis Books. ISBN 1578601487.
^ ^a ^b John G. West (2002). Celebrating Middle-Earth: The Lord of the Rings as a Defense of Western Civilization. Inkling Books. ISBN 1587420120.
^ Rachel Madorsky (2003). Create Your Own Destiny!: Spiritual Path to Success. Avanty House. ISBN 0970534949.
^ A.C. Grayling. What is Good? The Search for the best way to live. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2003.
^ Lopez, Mike (September 22, 1999). "Episode III: Relativism? A Jedi craves not these things". The Michigan Daily. Retrieved on 2007-07-26.
^ Lovatt, Stephen C. (2007). New Skins for Old Wine. Universal Publishers. pp. The Meaning of Life. ISBN 1581129602.
^ ^a ^b Raymond Kurzweil; Terry Grossman (2004). Fantastic Voyage: Live Long Enough to Live Forever [1]. Holtzbrinck Publishers. ISBN 1-57954-954-3.
^ Bryan Appleyard (2007). How to Live Forever Or Die Trying: On the New Immortality. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0743268687.
^ Cameron, Donald (2001). The Purpose of Life. Woodhill Publishing. ISBN 0-9540291-0-0.
^ Wayne, Larry; Johnson, Grace. "Expanding The Oneness". SelfGrowth.com. Retrieved on 2007-07-26.
^ Nick Lane (2005). Power, Sex, Suicide: Mitochondria and the Meaning of Life. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0192804812.
^ Kenneth M. Weiss; Anne V. Buchanan (2004). Genetics and the Logic of Evolution. Wiley-IEEE. ISBN 0471238058.
^ Jennifer Ackerman (2001). Chance in the House of Fate: A Natural History of Heredity. Houghton Mifflin Books. ISBN 0618219099.
^ Boyce Rensberger (1996). Life Itself: Exploring the Realm of the Living Cell. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195125002.
^ ^a ^b Thomas Patrick Burke (2004). The Major Religions: An Introduction with Texts. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 140511049X.
^ Chris Grau (2005). Philosophers Explore the Matrix. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195181074.
^ John M. Cooper; D. S. Hutchinson (1997). Plato: Complete Works. Hackett Publishing. ISBN 0-87220-349-2.
^ John E. Findling, Frank W. Thackeray (2001). Events That Changed the World Through the Sixteenth Century. Greenwood Press. ISBN 0313290792.
^ Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama (1954). The Meaning of Life: Buddhist Perspectives on Cause and Effect. Doubleday.
^ Ernest Joseph Simmons (1973). Tolstoy. Routledge. ISBN 071007395X.
^ Richard A. Bowell (2004). The Seven Steps Of Spiritual Intelligence: The Practical Pursuit of Purpose, Success and Happiness. Nicholas Brealey Publishing. ISBN 1857883446.
^ John C. Gibbs; Karen S. Basinger; Dick Fuller (1992). Moral Maturity: Measuring the Development of Sociomoral Reflection. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 0805804250.
^ ^a ^b ^c Timothy Tang (2007). Real Answers to The Meaning of Life and Finding Happiness. iUniverse. ISBN 9780595459414.
^ Tyler T. Roberts (1998). Contesting Spirit: Nietzsche, Affirmation, Religion. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691001278.
^ Lucy Costigan (2004). What Is the Meaning of Your Life: A Journey Towards Ultimate Meaning. iUniverse. ISBN 0595338801.
^ Steven L. Jeffers; Harold Ivan Smith (2007). Finding a Sacred Oasis in Grief: A Resource Manual for Pastoral Care. Radcliffe Publishing. ISBN 1846191815.
^ David L. Jeffrey (1992). A Dictionary of Biblical Tradition in English Literature. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 0802836348.
^ Dana A. Williams (2005). "In the Light of Likeness-transformed": The Literary Art of Leon Forrest. Ohio State University Press. ISBN 0814209947.
^ Jerry Z. Muller (1997). Conservatism: An Anthology of Social and Political Thought from David Hume to the Present. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691037116.
^ ^a ^b Mary Nash; Bruce Stewart (2002). Spirituality and Social Care: Contributing to Personal and Community Well-being. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. ISBN 184310024X.
^ Xinzhong Yao (2000). An Introduction to Confucianism. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521644305.
^ Bryan S. Turner; Chris Rojek (2001). Society and Culture: Principles of Scarcity and Solidarity. SAGE. ISBN 0761970495.
^ Anil Goonewardene (1994). Buddhist Scriptures. Harcourt Heinemann. ISBN 0435303554.
^ ^a ^b Luc Ferry (2002). Man Made God: The Meaning of Life. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226244849.
^ ^a ^b ^c Eric G. Stephan; R. Wayne Pace (2002). Powerful Leadership: How to Unleash the Potential in Others and Simplify Your Own Life. FT Press. ISBN 0130668362.
^ Dominique Moyse Steinberg. (2004). The Mutual-aid Approach to Working with Groups: Helping People Help One Another. Haworth Press. ISBN 0789014629.
^ John Caunt (2002). Boost Your Self-Esteem. Kogan Page. ISBN 0749438711.
^ Z'ev ben Shimon Halevi (1993). The Work of the Kabbalist. Weiser. ISBN 087728637X.
^ ^a ^b Michael Joachim Girard (2006). Essential Believing for the Christian Soul. Xulon Press. ISBN 1597815969.
^ T. M. P. Mahadevan (1974). Philosophy: Theory and Practice (Proceedings of the International Seminar on World Philosophy). Centre for Advanced Study in Philosophy, University of Madras.
^ Jaideva Singh (2003). Vijñanabhairava. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 8120808207.
^ ^a ^b T. W. Mitchell (1927). Problems in Psychopathology. Harcourt, Brace & company, inc..
^ John T. Scully (2007). The Five Commandments. Trafford Publishing. ISBN 1425119107.
^ John Piper (2006). Desiring God. Multnomah Books. ISBN 1590521196.
^ Peter Harrison (2001). The Bible, Protestantism, and the Rise of Natural Science. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521000963.
^ Steven Dillon (2006). The Solaris Effect: Art and Artifice in Contemporary American Film. University of Texas Press. ISBN 0292713452.
^ Raymond Aron (2000). The Century of Total War. Wisdom Publications. ISBN 0861711734.

External links

General

Meaningsoflife.com
Meaningsoflife.tv – Video discussions on the ultimate meaning of life with various religious and philosophical leaders.
Frequently Asked Questions about the Meaning of Life
Why Life Extension — or Why Live at All?

Scientific

Meaning and Happiness – Research on meaning and happiness from the perspective of Positive psychology.
The Big Question: Why are we here? – by Richard Dawkins

Philosophical

Spiritual

A Guide for the Perplexed (excerpt included) – by E. F. Schumacher
The Meaning of Life (from a Jewish perspective) – by Rabbi Noah Weinberg
Human Life – by K. Sri Dhammananda
Handbook for Mankind – by Buddhadasa Bhikkhu
Answers to Life's questions – by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

生命的意義

2009-06-16T14:57:00.001+10:00

最近在思考一个问题：生命的意义是什么？每个人都有不同的答案，自己的问题当然自己一个人思考，自己回答。于是午后到外面一边沐浴着阳光，一边脚踏着绿草，一边听着小鸟歌唱，晚上躺在床上冥想了一个晚上，但是像我这样的凡夫俗子，终究还是没有能够想明白。。。可能因为没有想明白这个问题，昨晚有点失眠，今早干活效率不高。今天下午脑海里又浮现出这个问题，于是忍不住上网Google了一下，发现原来这个问题也是有定义的，而且还很正式很理论化，于是把前辈们的理论答案转帖上来，供有需要的同学参考。

转念一想，在做技术预研项目的时候，有时候除了开动脑筋，例如头脑风暴、小组评审和三五成群开个电话会议等等，如果也能够广开思路，以更加开放的心态来主动迎接问题，例如在IEEE/ACM/Oracle等等互联网上进行一番深入调查，往往都能得到许多积极信息，对项目规划、对技术深入透彻分析、对个人成长也是有着不可估量的作用。

下文摘自《維基百科，自由的百科全書》

要查看Monty Python攝影，見The Meaning of Life。

《我們從哪裡來？我們是誰？我們往哪裡去？》
後印象派畫家保羅·高更著名作品之一

生命的意義是一個解構人類存在的目的與意義的哲學問題。這個概念通過許多相關問題體現出來，例如：「我為何在此」「什麼是生命？」「生命的真諦是什麼？」。在歷史長河中，它也是哲學，科學以及神學一直所思索的主題。前人在不同的文化環境與意識形態背景下也給出了很多的多元化答案。阿爾貝·加繆指出，作為一個存在的人，人類用生命的價值和意義來說服自己：人的存在不是荒誕的。^[1]

生命的意義經常和哲學與宗教的存在、意識(自覺)、幸福等概念交集在一起，還會涉及到其他的一些領域，如象徵符號、實體論、價值、目的、道德、善與惡、自由意志(自願)、上帝觀、神的存在、靈魂、來世等。而與科學的聯繫的關係不那麼直接，科學在與之相關的話題上，一般會設置一定的背景與參數來描述與宇宙有關的先驗事實。

一個另類的、以人為本、非宇宙非宗教學的問題是：「我的生命有何意義？」。關於生命目的與意義，一般認為，如果相信它是存在的話，它的價值大小與入世的深淺相一致。

[編輯]疑問生命的意義

《冥想》或《沉思中的哲學家》(局部)：
荷蘭現實主義畫家倫勃朗的作品

對生命的意義的疑問有很多的表達方式，主要包括以下幾種：

「生命的意義是什麼？」^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6]^[7]^[8]

「我為何於此？」「我在此為何？」^[9]^[10]
「何為生命之源？」^[9]^[10]
「何為生命的本相？」「何為實存的本相？」 ^[5]^[8]^[11]^[12]^[13]
「何為生命的意義？」^[14]

「生命有何意義與價值的東西？」^[10]^[15]

「何為生命價值？」^[10]^[16]

「生的理由是什麼？」「我為何而生？」^[17]^[10]^[18]

這些問題，科學理論、哲學、神學、靈修學等都做過形形色色的解答，但並沒有達成共識。因為生命的意義並不單純屬於某個學科，因此任何只從某個學科單層面去分析並給出答案是片面的，但是可以多層面去深刻了解生命的意義所在。

[編輯]科學探究與觀點

科學家假設生命的意義是可決定的, 透過了解宇宙運作的規則,人類是可能了解生命的意義，但不能解析生命潛在價值所在。^[19]科學的價值在於，一方面能夠提供更多的工具與方法使得人類對問題有更深的了解，但另一方面科學的發展與社會的進步、人類智慧的演化發展是不同步的，即客觀存在與主觀能動性永遠存在差距。所以隨著科學的發展，人類也只有陷進了更深層次的疑問與探尋，如此循環。^[20]以下幾種科學學科曾試圖解析生命的意義所在。

有一個大體稱為「恐懼管理理論」價值系統被社會心理學家所提出來。理論宣稱，人類天生地對死亡產生本能的恐懼，因此它會促使我們對逃離死亡做出心理提醒，從而做出生命價值選擇。

神經科學已經對神經傳遞素運輸，特別是在邊緣系統和獨特的腹側被蓋區等物理實體也有很多的理論研究，例如激勵、愉悅、動機等。如果相信生命的意義在於爭取最大限度的快樂，這些理論有給出標準式的預測實踐。

經濟學家則在市場上實踐了何為價值。

社會學則用價值觀、規範、失范等理論概念在社會層級中檢驗價值。

[編輯]普遍信念

「生命的意義是什麼？」很多人都曾在人生的某些階段思考這個難以解答的問題，其中絕大部分人是在思考「生命有何目的？」這個問題。下列是一小部分較為流行的答案：

取得成就

...賺取財富，爬上社會的上層
...促進人類的進化，或擴大人類的基因組
...促進科技的進步,或主動研發未來人種
...與其他個體或團體進行競爭或合作
...摧毀對自己做成危害的存在,或學習以非暴力和非對抗的方式生存
...為自己的目標而死亡
...取得及行使權力
...留下存在的痕跡,例如透過寫作或美術作品
...生存於世上
...以有性繁殖或無性繁殖來製造後代
...保謢家庭(或家族)
...去實現自己的夢想,預像,或命運
...尋找自由,不論是肉體上,意義上或精神上
...尋找快樂及保持健壯,體臉歡欣
...保持存在,透過科學方法做到永垂不朽(詳見生命延續)
.....用時間換取金錢,人脈

獲取智慧及知識

...使自己不再對任何事感到疑惑,或對任何事都感好奇
...增進對世界的理解
...探索所屬區域外的事物
...學習別人的長處,從他人的短處裏吸取教訓(孔子日:擇其善者而從之,其不善者而改之)
...尋找真理, 知識,覺悟,或智慧
...尋找"生命的意義"
...了解創造主

提升精神層次

...與自然理境達到超感官的聯繫
...到達覺悟和內在平靜的境界
...在淨土裏得到重生
...成為神,或類似的存在
...去行好事
...透過體驗一切事物來擴張自己的內在
...憐憫世人
...愛人,被愛
...生存在一個獨善其中,無法自我傷害,也不能傷害別人的境界
...尋找正義和自由

靈屬的提升

...成為天堂與地獄之問的連結
...為信仰而死亡,進而成為殉道者
...愛人如己,與自然環境取得協調 (詳見烏托邦)
...簡化自己存在的方式
...保持人類的生存,可說是保護存在的環境
...在死後可到達天堂
...尋找道德的真義
...服務別人,行有益他人的事
...理解並實行 "神的意旨"
...去崇拜神,為神服務,或到達神的國度
...否定某個或所有的神聖事物的存在

其他

...尋找真愛
...達到自己的極限
...無私地貢獻自己於團體
...為自己的存在尋找理由
...享受存在的感覺
...盡情行樂
...參與宇宙中不可避地增加的[熵]
...破壞傳統的規條(詳見non-conformism)
...只不過是宇宙生命中的一件事件(不論該事件是偶然地或必然地發生,這個理論仍在被哲學家們爭論著)
...與其他個體(不論生命與否)取得聯繫,或成為一體
...解決生命裏遇到的所有問題,或嘗試不使它們影響自己的存在方式,或被問題所纏繞(詳見佛教)
...尋找美
...根本沒有什麼生命的意義,對不同的個體而言,"生命的意義為何?"的答案取決於他們想如何回答.
..."生命的意義為何?"這個問題的答案,就是去回答"生命的意義為何?"這個問題 (詳見下方的Sri Sri Ravi Shankar)
...上方所有答案的綜合.

生命根本無目的,所以...

...好好生存直到死亡(根本沒有任何團體或神聖的目地)
...只是一連串事件的集合
...只是一件單一事件
...應見證時間的運轉
...生命只是一個周期
...whatever you see you see, as in "projection makes perception"
...根本沒有"意義"這回事(詳見虛無主義)
...誰在乎?

[編輯]哲學觀點

[編輯]價值即意義

[編輯]無神論者的觀點

[編輯]存在主義者的觀點

[編輯]人文主義者的觀點

[編輯]虛無主義者的觀點

[編輯]實證主義者的觀點

[編輯]實用主義者的觀點

[編輯]超人文主義者的觀點

[編輯]有神論觀點的概要

主條目：Religion

[編輯]與神的關係

[編輯]愛神愛人

[編輯]Reformed Theology: glorify and enjoy God

[編輯]崇拜神

[編輯]Sapiential Meaning of Life

[編輯]所羅門王的結論

萬事都是虛空、都是捕風，人要敬畏神，遵守誡命，這是人所當盡的本分

                            -- 圣经.传道书

[編輯]神秘主義觀點

神秘主義的觀點根據言論家的描述有很大不同。總體而言，主要認為生命是一種發生，一種伸展。學習「人生的成功」不衹是擁有所需的金錢，舒適的生活，還包括身體健康、家庭幸福和生活愉快。世界上是有一些東西是金錢、名利收買不到的，永駕於金錢名利之上，那就是人格健康的成長、親情和心靈上的快樂，誰也不可取締，那該是「生命的成就」。

任何人都會變老，但不一定每個人都會長大。先學會做人，就識學會做事：對人真誠、認真做事，寬人嚴已地處事。

達到平衡兩種「雙嬴」之前，何妨不採用「知識的良心」去判斷，努力奮鬥中就不要太計較得失了，不要輕言棄餒，不彷思考「吃虧就是討便宜」的哲學；當「吃虧」中積累了許多失敗的教訓，從學習教訓中得到資源就是「經驗」；走錯失敗的路經驗多了，邁向「生命的成就」的出路還遠嗎？

[編輯]幽默和流行文化的處理方式

辛普森家庭

荷馬：神啊，生命的意義是什麼？

上帝：荷馬，我不能告訴你。

荷馬：為什麼？

上帝：等你死了就知道了。

荷馬：噢，我等不了這麼久。

上帝：連六個月也等不了嗎？

荷馬：不，現在就告訴我……

上帝：噢，好吧……生命的意義是……

[編輯]參看

Perennial philosophy

Simple living

The Urantia Book The Urantia Book, Parts I-IV; esoteric narratives on the meaning of life.

World view

It's a Wonderful Life

The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy

"Soon You Will Understand...The Meaning of Life

Template:Philosophy see also

Template:Philosophy see also lists

[編輯]參考資料

^ Mistakes Were made (but not by me) Why We Justify Foolish Beliefs, Bad Decisions, and Hurtful Acts by Carol Tarvis and Elliot Aronson, Harcourt, Inc, 2007, pages 13 and 14

^ Jonathan Westphal（1998）．Philosophical Propositions: An Introduction to Philosophy．Routledge．ISBN 0415170532．

^ Robert Nozick（1981）．Philosophical Explanations．Harvard University Press．ISBN 0674664795．

^ Albert Jewell（2003）．Ageing, Spirituality and Well-Being．Jessica Kingsley Publishers．ISBN 184310167X．

^ ^5.0 ^5.1 Question of the Month: What Is The Meaning Of Life?．Philosophy Now．Issue 59．於2007年7月26日查閱．

^ Glenn Yeffeth（2005）．The Anthology at the End of the Universe: Leading Science Fiction Authors on Douglas Adams' The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy．BenBella Books, Inc．ISBN 1932100563．

^ David Seaman（2005）．The Real Meaning of Life．New World Library．ISBN 1577315146．

^ ^8.0 ^8.1 Julian Baggini（2004年September月）．What's It All About? Philosophy and the Meaning of Life．USA：Granta Books．ISBN 1862076618．

^ ^9.0 ^9.1 Paul Davies（March 2000）．The Fifth Miracle: The Search for the Origin and Meaning of Life．Simon & Schuster．ISBN 0-684-86309-X．於2007-07-26參閱．

^ ^10.0 ^10.1 ^10.2 ^10.3 ^10.4 Jose Fadul（2008）．Lessons in Chess, Lessons in Life: Application of the Psychology of the Game in Real Life．Lulu Press．ISBN 978-0-557-02158-1．

^ 引用錯誤無效<ref>標簽；未為name屬性為Christiansen_.26_Baum_.26_Bass-Haugen的引用提供文字; $2

^ Rick Warren（2002）．The Purpose Driven Life: What on Earth Am I Here For?．Zondervan．ISBN 0310255252．

^ Jiddu Krishnamurti（2001）．What Are You Doing With Your Life?．Krishnamurti Foundation of America．ISBN 188800424X．

^ 引用錯誤無效<ref>標簽；未為name屬性為.E5.85.8B.E9.87.8C.E5.B8.8C.E9.82.A3.E7.A9.86.E6.8F.90的引用提供文字; $2

^ Puolimatka, Tapio，Airaksinen, Timo（2009年6月16日）．Education and the Meaning of Life（PDF）．Philosophy of Education．University of Helsinki．於2007年7月26日查閱．

^ Stan Van Hooft（2004）．Life, Death, and Subjectivity: Moral Sources in Bioethics．Rodopi．ISBN 9042019123．

^ 引用錯誤無效<ref>標簽；未為name屬性為Hua的引用提供文字; $2

^ Russ Shafer-Landau; Terence Cuneo（2007）．Foundations of Ethics: An Anthology．Blackwell Publishing．ISBN 1405129514．

^ E. Diener, J.J. Sapyta, E. Suh (1998). "Subjective Well-Being Is Essential to Well-Being." Psychological Inquiry, Lawrence Earlbaum

^ 探索 —— 追尋生命的意義．ihns.ac.cn（2000-）．於2009年5月28日查閱．

[編輯]Additional References

Dreams, Evolution, and Value Fulfilment, Jane Roberts, Amber-Allen Publishing.

Unlimited Power: The New Science of Personal Achievement; by Anthony Robbins. Random House Publishing Group, 1987. ISBN 0449902803

The Science of Soulmates, By William Henderson, Booksurge 2002. ISBN 158898611X

[編輯]Philosophy

Hanfling, Oswald [ed.] Life and Meaning: A Reader 1987, Oxford: Basil Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-15784-0

Nozick, Robert. The Examined Life: Philosophical Meditations 1989, New York: Pocket Books. ISBN 0671725017

Wiggins, David. "Truth, Invention, and the Meaning of Life" in Proceedings of the British Academy LXII (1976); reprinted in his Needs, Values, Truth(Aristotelian Society Series, Volume 6) 2nd edition, 1991, Oxford, Basil Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-17555-5

[編輯]延伸閱讀

Haisch, Bernard The God Theory: Universes, Zero-point Fields, and What's Behind It All (Preface), Red Wheel/Weiser, 2006, ISBN 1578633745

[編輯]外部連結

Looking for the Meaning of Life, by James Leonard Park - A probable answer.

What is Life』s Purpose? The Meaning of life in Judaism

The FAQ of life -- by Eliezer S. Yudkowsky, transhumanist

The Meaning of Life, or, What's it all About? -- a world view, by anonymous

The Meaning of Human Life -- from Scientific-Spiritual Ecological Center

Why Life Extension or Why Live at All? Desire for life extension is rooted in the valuation of life.

The meaning of life is discussed on gamedev.net

Erwin Schrödinger "What is Life?"

The Science of Soulmates

3個分類: 生命 | 形上學 | 倫理學

Test of Windows Live Writer

2009-06-15T20:48:00.000+10:00

It’s very convenient to edit and publish Blogger by Windows Live Writer.

I have tried it, have you?

1. Overview

1) OS_AUTHENT_PREFIX is an important initialization parameter to configure Oracle External User environment.

2) External User is a kind of Oracle External Authentication solution.

3) With Oracle External User, the user authentication process is accomplished by operating system automatically.

4) Authorized OS user can access Oracle database directly without providing username and password other than logon with prompting these information.

2. Official Reference

OS_AUTHENT_PREFIX

Parameter type

String

Syntax

OS_AUTHENT_PREFIX = authentication_prefix

Default value

OPS$

Modifiable

OS_AUTHENT_PREFIX specifies a prefix that Oracle uses to authenticate users attempting to connect to the server. Oracle concatenates the value of this parameter to the beginning of the user's operating system account name and password. When a connection request is attempted, Oracle compares the prefixed username with Oracle usernames in the database.

The default value of this parameter is OPS$ for backward compatibility with previous versions. However, you might prefer to set the prefix value to "" (a null string), thereby eliminating the addition of any prefix to operating system account names

Note:

The text of the OS_AUTHENT_PREFIX parameter is case sensitive on some operating systems.

See Also:

l Your operating system-specific Oracle documentation for the default value

3. Best Practice

Create Oracle database user with OS authentication solution.

Life DBA, DBA's Life

Performance Tuning with Plumber

水管工的性能调优

Porridge and User Requirement

粥与客户需求

Meaning of life

Contents

Meaning of life as a question

Scientific inquiry and perspectives

Psychological significance and value in life

Origin and nature of biological life

The Big Bang and humanity's fate in this universe

Scientific questions about the mind

Philosophical perspectives

Ancient Greek philosophy

Platonism

Aristotelianism

Cynicism

Cyrenaicism

Epicureanism

Stoicism

Enlightenment philosophy

Classical liberalism

Kantianism

19th Century philosophy

Utilitarianism

Marxism

Nihilism

20th Century philosophy

Pragmatism

Existentialism

Absurdism

Secular humanism

Logical positivism

Postmodernism

Naturalistic pantheism

Religious perspectives

Western religions (origins in the Middle East)

Zoroastrianism

Judaism

Christianity

Islam

Bahá'í Faith

South Asian Religions

Hindu philosophies

Advaita and Dvaita Hinduism

Vaishnavism

Jainism

Buddhism

Early Buddhism

Mahayana Buddhism

Sikhism

Far Eastern Religions

Shinto

Taoism

Confucianism

New religions

The meaning of life in popular culture

Popular views

...to realize one's potential and ideals

...to achieve biological perfection

...to seek wisdom and knowledge

...to do good, to do the right thing

...to attain spiritual enlightenment

...to love, to feel, to enjoy the act of living

...to have power, to be better

One should not seek to know and understand the meaning of life

Life has no meaning

See also

Origin and nature of life and reality

Value of life

Purpose of life

Miscellaneous

References

External links

General

Scientific

Philosophical

Spiritual

生命的意義